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每一次大型社會(huì)問(wèn)題的爆發(fā)，都伴隨著謠言四起，這一次新型冠狀病毒也不例外。即使受過(guò)嚴(yán)格心理學(xué)訓(xùn)練的專業(yè)人員，一不小心也被誤導(dǎo)，進(jìn)而再誤導(dǎo)了別人。這一次，筆者本著謹(jǐn)慎學(xué)習(xí)的態(tài)度，為了使大家學(xué)會(huì)辨別謠言，特此翻譯了一篇社會(huì)心理學(xué)博士的文章。最關(guān)鍵的是，在互聯(lián)網(wǎng)時(shí)代，教會(huì)大家Do not be Evil不作惡！

1、什么算作“謠言”？

What Counts as a “Rumor”?

首先，以社會(huì)心理學(xué)家的方式來(lái)定義“謠言”的含義。Nicholas DiFonzo和Prashant Bordia描述了謠言的四種基本特征：

Let’s start by defining what we mean by a “rumor” in the same way social psychologists have. Nicholas DiFonzo and Prashant Bordia describe four basic qualities of rumors:

它們是信息聲明。我們并不是在談?wù)撊藗兊挠^點(diǎn)。相反，謠言是為了提供信息。

They are information statements. We’re not talking about the opinions that people share. Instead, rumors are meant to be informative.

他們?cè)诹魍āQ句話說(shuō)，如果您有自己的個(gè)人陰謀論，認(rèn)為月球不是真實(shí)的，那么從不告訴任何人也就不是謠言。

They are in circulation. In other words, if you have your own personal conspiracy theory that the moon isn’t real, it’s not a rumor if you never tell anyone.

他們未經(jīng)驗(yàn)證。這是關(guān)鍵。如果我正在參加一次高中同學(xué)聚會(huì)，并且嘗試傳播有關(guān)Jeff和Tina剛生下嬰兒的消息[1]，那么，如果Jeff和Tina將嬰兒的照片發(fā)布到Facebook上，這并不是謠言。是的，它提供了很多信息，并且正在發(fā)行中，但是由于已經(jīng)被證實(shí)是正確的，因此從技術(shù)上講它不是謠言。

They are unverified. This is key. If I’m at a high school reunion, and I try to spread the news that Jeff and Tina just had a baby[1], that’s not a rumor if Jeff and Tina posted the baby’s picture to Facebook. Yes, it’s informative and in circulation, but since it’s been definitively verified as true, it’s not technically a rumor.

最后，謠言是“與工具相關(guān)的”。它們回答人們因重要性或因重要性而希望回答的問(wèn)題。如果有傳言說(shuō)您的辦公室要裁員，那將起到重要作用，因?yàn)檫@些信息會(huì)影響您的生活！有些人將謠言傳播為“集體感官活動(dòng)”，因?yàn)樗鼈兛梢詭椭藗兝斫饽＠鈨煽傻那闆r。

Finally, rumors are “instrumentally relevant.” They answer questions that people want answered because they feel important or significant. If there’s a rumor that your office is laying people off, that’s instrumentally relevant because that information impacts your life! Some have called rumor spreading a “group sensemaking activity” because they serve to help people understand an ambiguous situation.

*如果您對(duì)謠言與“八卦” [2]和“城市傳說(shuō)”有何不同感興趣，請(qǐng)參閱前兩個(gè)腳注！

*If you’re interested in how rumors are different from “gossip” [2] and “urban legends,”[3] see the previous two footnotes!

2、人們?yōu)楹紊⒉贾{言的心理學(xué)分析

The Psychology of Why People Spread Rumors

如果您一直在關(guān)注，則謠言的主要功能是弄清一些尚不清楚的內(nèi)容。謠言有助于解釋這個(gè)令人困惑的世界。人們之間的緊張關(guān)系令人恐懼和困惑?！盀槭裁窗l(fā)生壞事？”

If you’ve been paying attention, the primary function of a rumor is to make sense of something that’s already unclear. Rumors help explain a confusing element of the world. In the soda rumor I opened with, the tensions between groups of people are scary and confusing. “Why are bad things happening?”

這種混亂為謠言打開了大門，人們可以堅(jiān)持不懈，以使他們至少對(duì)世界為何以其目前的方式運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)有所了解。

This confusion opens the door to rumors, which people can hold>some idea about why the world is working in the way that it is.

1947年，戈登·艾爾波特（GordonAllport）和里奧·郵差（Leo Postman）出版了《謠言心理學(xué)》一書。盡管在那個(gè)時(shí)期，謠言是社會(huì)心理學(xué)中一個(gè)非常熱門的話題，但是，更好地研究謠言變得越來(lái)越困難。但是，在過(guò)去的幾年中，人們對(duì)謠言的心理重新產(chǎn)生了興趣。這里是對(duì)該研究發(fā)現(xiàn)的簡(jiǎn)要回顧。

In 1947, Gordon Allport and Leo Postman published the book, The Psychology of Rumor. Although rumors were a pretty hot topic in social psychology around that time, it got more and more difficult to study rumors well. In the last several years, however, there’s been a renewed interest in the psychology of rumor. Here’s a quick review of what that research has found.

大荔枝點(diǎn)評(píng)：認(rèn)知上的不確定與困惑，情緒上的恐懼與焦慮為謠言提供了溫床。

據(jù)筆者分析，人們散步謠言的原因大概有以下幾種情況：

There are several reasons that the rumors spread by people as follows.

A. 人們?cè)诓淮_定的情況下散布謠言

People Spread Rumors When There’s Uncertainty

當(dāng)我們還不完全了解世事如何或?yàn)槭裁窗l(fā)生的時(shí)候，謠言就開始散布了。如果您可以想象再次上初中，請(qǐng)想象如果有一天突然有一個(gè)同學(xué)停止上學(xué)會(huì)發(fā)生什么。那里存在很多不確定性，因此人們可能會(huì)散布謠言，以此來(lái)解釋所發(fā)生的事情。實(shí)際上，1955年的一次現(xiàn)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)就做到了這一點(diǎn)：研究人員策略性地在沒(méi)有解釋的情況下將一名學(xué)生從小學(xué)班級(jí)撤出。毫不奇怪，隨著學(xué)生試圖弄清情況，謠言開始泛濫。

It’s when we don’t already have a firm grasp>researchers strategically withdrew a student from a grade school class without explanation. Not surprisingly, rumors started to fly as students tried to make sense of the situation.

大荔枝點(diǎn)評(píng)：謠言就像武功，可以全憑想象力，比現(xiàn)實(shí)還真實(shí)。

B. 人們?cè)诟械浇箲]時(shí)散布謠言

People Spread Rumors When They Feel Anxiety

通常，不確定性會(huì)滋生焦慮-我們希望對(duì)世界有清晰的認(rèn)識(shí)，而當(dāng)我們感到不確定時(shí)，我們會(huì)感到焦慮-焦慮本身與謠言傳播有關(guān)。一些研究表明，焦慮癥患者更容易散布謠言。

Oftentimes uncertainty breeds anxiety—we like to have a clear sense of the world, and we get anxious when we feel uncertainty—and anxiety.

另一個(gè)有趣的實(shí)驗(yàn)使一些學(xué)生對(duì)即將到來(lái)的面試感到特別焦慮。與對(duì)照組中較不焦慮的學(xué)生相比，那些感到更焦慮的學(xué)生更容易散布謠言。

Another fascinating experiment made some students feel especially anxious about an upcoming interview. The students who were made to feel more anxious spread rumors more quickly than the less anxious students in the control group.

研究還表明，“可怕的”謠言（即，將要發(fā)生壞事的傳言）比“希望”的謠言（即，將要發(fā)生好事的傳聞）傳播得更多。無(wú)論是在網(wǎng)上散布謠言還是親自散布謠言，都是如此。

Research has also shown that “dread” rumors (i.e., rumors that something bad is going to happen) spread more than “wish” rumors (i.e., rumors that something good is going to happen). This is the case both for rumors spread.

大荔枝點(diǎn)評(píng)：華人的焦慮是彌漫的，不論身處何方，都可以參與到謠言的發(fā)布與傳播之中。作為發(fā)起者或傳播者，要了解自己的情緒---你焦慮了嗎？你恐懼了嗎？這是考驗(yàn)EQ的時(shí)候來(lái)了---體察自己的情緒并控制自己的情緒及其對(duì)他人的影響。

C. 當(dāng)信息很重要時(shí)，人們會(huì)散布謠言

People Spread Rumors When the Information is Important

盡管您可能不愿談?wù)撚嘘P(guān)您所工作的公司的傳聞，但我可能不在乎。原因是它與我無(wú)關(guān)。另一方面，我很想談?wù)撈渌麑?duì)我來(lái)說(shuō)更重要的傳聞。實(shí)際上，Allport和Postman于1947年制定的“謠言基本法則”是，散布謠言既取決于局勢(shì)的模糊性，也取決于謠言的重要性。

As much as you might be dying to talk about the rumor you heard about the company you work for, I probably don’t care a ton. The reason is that it’s just not that relevant to me. I,>basic law of rumor” that they developed in 1947 was that spreading rumors depends>ambiguity of the situation and the importance of the rumor.

在整個(gè)研究中，當(dāng)信息對(duì)他們更重要時(shí)，人們更有可能散布謠言。

Across a whole bunch of studies, people are more likely to spread rumors when the information is more important to them.

大荔枝點(diǎn)評(píng)：要提防那些渾水摸魚、混淆視聽的商業(yè)行為，他們很可能在浪費(fèi)你的時(shí)間，也在制造焦慮與恐慌。

D. 人們?cè)谙嘈判畔r(shí)散布謠言

People Spread Rumors When They Believe the Information

面對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)吧-如果您聽到一個(gè)您覺(jué)得是完全荒謬的謠言，那么您就根本不會(huì)有動(dòng)力去廣泛傳播。例如，一項(xiàng)研究調(diào)查了大學(xué)罷工期間謠言的傳播情況。最終，被廣泛傳播的是人們覺(jué)得更為可信的謠言。

Let’s face it—if you hear a rumor that you think is completely ridiculous, you probably won’t find yourself>It was the rumors that were more believable that ended up spreading the most.

大荔枝點(diǎn)評(píng)：“好事不出門，丑聞傳千里”。這些謠言將成為一些人永久的、信以為真的記憶---信息垃圾。

E. 人們傳播謠言有助于他們的自我形象

People Spread Rumors When it Helps Their Self-Image

大量研究表明，人們常常想對(duì)自己感覺(jué)良好，但是人們做到這一點(diǎn)的一種方法是通過(guò)謠言傳播。發(fā)生這種情況有兩個(gè)原因。一種是散布謠言，將您定位為掌握世界動(dòng)態(tài)的人。然后，人們可能會(huì)成為最了解情況的人。謠言傳播可以提高自尊心的另一種方式是，當(dāng)謠言是關(guān)于另一個(gè)群體的時(shí)候。其他研究表明，放下其他群體可以提高人們的自尊心。事實(shí)證明，很多謠言都是關(guān)于一個(gè)小組的“反對(duì)”小組。這些被稱為“楔形謠言”，有助于加強(qiáng)群體間的差異。顯然，通過(guò)提升自己的團(tuán)隊(duì)與其他競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)關(guān)系，這些可以增強(qiáng)自尊心。

Plenty of research has shown that people often want to feel good about themselves, but. Another way rumor spreading can boost self-esteem is when the rumor is about another group. Other research has shown that putting down other groups can boost people’s self-esteem. Lots of rumors, it turns out, are about a group’s “opposing” group. These have been called “wedge rumors” and serve to reinforce intergroup differences. Clearly, these can boost self-regard by elevating.

大荔枝點(diǎn)評(píng)：謠言是一種無(wú)形的動(dòng)力，像抽大麻一樣。對(duì)于有一些“信息靈通”人士，他們更傾向于捕風(fēng)捉影，而且自我感覺(jué)良好。

F. 人們?cè)趥鞑ブ{言幫助他們提高社會(huì)地位時(shí)

People Spread Rumors When it Helps Their Social Status

這聽起來(lái)可能是原因5，但有細(xì)微的差別。原因5是，當(dāng)人們幫助傳播謠言時(shí)，他們對(duì)自己的感覺(jué)會(huì)更好。不過(guò)，更重要的方面是，人們可以利用謠言來(lái)加強(qiáng)他們的社交聯(lián)系。想要被一群人接受嗎？傳遞一些有關(guān)其競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手的謠言。

This might sound like reason #5, but there’s a subtle difference. Reason #5 was that people feel better about themselves when they help spread rumors. There’s a little more to it, though, which is that people can use rumors to strengthen their social ties. Want to be accepted by a group? Pass along some rumors about their rival group.

這項(xiàng)研究的證據(jù)可以在研究中看到，根據(jù)人們告訴他們的對(duì)象，人們會(huì)說(shuō)不同的謠言。具體來(lái)說(shuō)，問(wèn)題是人們是否會(huì)傳聞某個(gè)學(xué)校團(tuán)體排名下降的謠言，或者是否會(huì)傳出該團(tuán)體排名上升的謠言。

The evidence for this can be seen in studies where people tell different rumors depending>decreased or whether they’d pass along a rumor that the group’s ranking increased.

結(jié)果表明，這取決于誰(shuí)會(huì)收到謠言。如果是這個(gè)小組的成員，人們更有可能散布關(guān)于他們的正面謠言。如果是某個(gè)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手的成員，那么人們更有可能散布負(fù)面謠言。關(guān)鍵是人們會(huì)策略性地散布謠言，以贏得他人的尊重。

The results showed that it depended>part of that group, people were more likely to spread a positive rumor about them. If it was someone who was part of a rival group, then people were more likely to spread the negative rumor. The point is that people spread rumors strategically, to gain the respect of others.

大荔枝點(diǎn)評(píng)：信息是拿來(lái)溝通交流與分享的，謠言卻還有更重要的功能，在大家還在困惑、焦慮與恐懼之中，來(lái)了一點(diǎn)解藥---毒雞湯，喝了還不死人。

Footnotes

[1] ↑Of course they did

[2]↑ Oh, hi. You’re interested enough to check out this particular footnote. Okay, when it comes to gossip, psychologists have noted that gossip is more like casual conversation about individual people. It’s mostly for amusement, reinforcing standards for “appropriate” behavior, or to exclude certain people from a group. Again, rumors by definition are unverified. Gossip could be totally verified, but it’s being spread for more social reasons—not in order to understand an important and confusing situation.

[3]↑ Whereas rumors are little isolated information statements, urban legends are more specifically stories, complete with settings and characters and plots. The end goal of an urban legend is to be a good story. A rumor is meant to lend understanding to an ambiguous situation.

http://socialpsychonline.com/2015/09/psychology-why-rumors-spread/

本文作者Andy Luttrell,  社會(huì)心理學(xué)博士

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